Respiration in plants refers to a process in which a plant utilizes atmospheric oxygen to oxidize glucose and other respiratory substrates like fats or proteins. Respiratory substrates are high energy biomolecules that produce energy, carbon dioxide, and water due to the C-C bond breaks. Plants undergo cellular respiration in the presence or absence of light. …
Germination of a plant refers to a phenomenon in which a seed germinates to form a new seeding or plant. The germination process results in the emergence of the radicle (primary root) and plumule (primary shoot). Before germination, the seed remains dormant in the soil. Then, under favourable conditions (optimum temperature, oxygen, light, water etc.), a …
The anther is a part of the flower’s male reproductive system or stamen. It carries the reproductive structures or the male gametes (pollen grains), which germinate and cause the fertilization of an ovule. A male reproductive part of a flower typically consists of two elements (filament and anther). A filament appears as a long, slender …
Fertilization in flower is a type of sexual reproduction, where the flower’s male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote or fruit. In a flowering plant, pollen grains released from an anther containing two sperm cells or male gametes of the flowering plant. The flower’s ovary consists of a megasporangium or ovule, which includes …
Pollination in a flower is a transferring mechanism of pollen grains from the anther (flower’s male reproductory part or stamen) to the stigma (flower’s female reproductive part or gynoecium). It is the primary stage that results in the flower’s fertilization. The passage of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma occurs via pollinating agents …
DNA mismatch repair is a mechanism of repairing DNA by the removal of mismatched nucleotides via MMR proteins. The role of mismatch repair proteins in the prokaryotic DNA helped to study the mismatch repair system in the eukaryotic DNA as well. The mismatch repair system is essential, as it maintains the genome’s stability at the time …
The electron transport system refers to the “Electron transport chain” or “ETS” (in abbreviated form) that is present in the inner mitochondrial membrane. ETS involves electron transfer through a series of protein complexes from higher (NADH+) to lower energy state (O2) by releasing protons into the cytosol. A movement of proton or H+ from a …
The bilayer cell membrane is a membranous structure, which consists of two phospholipid layers. Thus, a cell membrane also refers to a phospholipid bilayer membrane composed of many phospholipid molecules. A structure of a phospholipid molecule consists of a hydrophilic head, a phosphate molecule, a glycerol molecule and two hydrophobic fatty acid tail. The phospholipid …
Clostridium botulinum is a clinically significant bacteria, which causes a sporadic but severe disease called “Botulism”. It produces a particular type of exotoxin that affects the nervous system by inhibiting the neuromuscular junction’s activity. Therefore, the botulinum toxin behaves as a neurotoxin, which blocks the release of a neurotransmitter (acetylcholine). Acetylcholine is a chemical compound …
Botulism disease is caused by a bacterial agent, Clostridium botulinum, that produces an exotoxin. Clostridium botulinum causes bacterial food poisoning or intoxication as it releases exotoxin. Exotoxin acts as a neurotoxin, which disables the normal functioning of the nervous system. Thus, an exotoxin produced by Clostridium botulinum is called botulinum neurotoxin, which blocks the synthesis of the …